English 
Japanese 
Let's learn about Yokkaichi pollution
Overview of Industrial Pollution Improvement in Japan
In Japan, in the 1960s, driven by growing social demand, the government and the private sector worked together to vigorously implement measures to combat seven major pollution problems (air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, land subsidence, odors, noise, and vibration). Thanks to their efforts, the environment has gradually improved since 1972, and now enjoys benefits from overcoming pollution that are unparalleled anywhere in the world. At the same time, the country's gross domestic product (GDP) has shown stable growth, which is a testament to the fact that environmental protection and economic growth have been well balanced.
Regarding pollution control technologies, appropriate technologies are carefully used according to their feasibility and potential. For example, the government and the private sector have worked hand in hand to develop desulfurization of fuel oil and flue gas desulfurization technology, and emission standards have been established according to the level of technology achieved. The government has also introduced financing and tax incentives to promote the achievement of strict environmental standards.
Typical examples are low-interest loans from government financial institutions, special depreciation programs, and property tax deductions and exemptions. In determining pollution control measures and policies, the government has also provided opportunities for discussion through conferences and seminars in an effort to build good relations with the private sector and to promote its prevention measures.
It also clarified the responsibility of local administrations, which are in a position to obtain statistical data on actual pollution conditions, in order to implement more effective pollution control measures.
Japan's environment has maintained a desirable level mainly due to these progressive efforts on the part of the government and the private sector, which has developed pollution control technologies and taken preventive measures.
Air Pollution Control Initiatives Yokkaichi City, Mie Prefecture
Construction of petrochemical complexes and generation of pollution
(1) Japan's industrial policy and construction of petrochemical complexes
Yokkaichi City in Mie Prefecture is a major industrial and commercial city geographically located in the center of the Japanese archipelago, 40 km southwest of Nagoya. To the east is Ise Bay, and to the west, the Suzuka mountain range rises, approximately 25 km from the coast to the mountain range. The center of the city is located on the coast and currently has a population of approximately 300,000.
After the war, in an attempt to rebuild the economy, the Japanese government announced the first phase of its petrochemical industry plan, including the Petrochemical Industry Development Plan of 1955. At that time, Yokkaichi was selected as one of the sites for the construction of a petrochemical complex.
The first petrochemical complex in Japan was built in Yokkaichi in 1959 (the first industrial complex), where an ethylene plant with an annual production capacity of 22,000 tons, a petroleum refinery, a power plant, and petrochemical-related manufacturing plants were located.
A few years later, a second petrochemical complex was built in the city under the second phase of the petrochemical industry plan, which became operational in 1963. In 1972, the complex was expanded and a third petrochemical complex was built to meet the growing demand for ethylene and petrochemical products. The ethylene plant, with an annual production capacity of 300,000 tons, began operations in the same year.
The ethylene plants in the first and third complexes were later upgraded to produce 280,000 and 380,000 tons per year, respectively.
With this industrial development, Yokkaichi continues to ship many petrochemical-related products today.
(2) Pollution of the sea and fish with unusual odors
Yokkaichi is famous for its severe air pollution, which caused the respiratory disease Yokkaichi Asthma, but it was the fishing industry that first suffered from pollution and was greatly affected by the severe water pollution.
In 1959, fish from Ise Bay, especially those caught off the coast of Yokkaichi, were either returned unsold or heavily discounted at the central wholesale market in Tsukiji, Tokyo, because they were labeled "unsuitable for eating due to their oily odor.
In April 1961, the Mie Prefectural Government established the "Ise Bay Sewage Countermeasures Promotion Council" to investigate the cause of the strange odor, and identified the cause of the fish, saying that the oily fish was caused by the fish absorbing wastewater containing mineral oil discharged from oil refineries or petrochemical plants. This was later corroborated in an investigation report by the Science and Technology Agency.
Thus, the wastewater from the plant off the coast of Yokkaichi caused tremendous damage to fish and marine life, and inflicted tremendous damage on the coastal fishing industry. Hence, for many years, the petrochemical plants associated with the industrial complex were at odds with local fishermen who complained of the damage. However, the situation of these fish with different smells is gradually improving.
(3) Air pollution and health hazard issues
Following the water pollution, which caused great damage to the fishing industry, the company faced serious air pollution, including soot and odors.
Around 1959, when the No. 1 Industrial Complex began operations, the number of residents suffering from respiratory diseases such as asthma began to increase significantly in the areas surrounding the complex, especially in the Shiohama and Isotsu areas.
Since then, numerous investigations have been conducted to determine the cause of the problem, but at first, while the causal relationship with air pollution had not yet been identified, the subject of the investigations was not clear. First, in November 1960, Mie University began measuring sulfurous acid gas (SO2) concentrations and dust fallout around the industrial complex, initially using a manual measuring device, which was later replaced by an automatic measuring device in 1962.
According to a report submitted by the university in 1961, the Isotsu area was severely affected by pollution, especially in winter, as it is located downwind of the northwest monsoon blowing from the industrial complex side. In the Isotsu area, sulfurous acid gas concentrations sometimes reached an hourly average of 1 ppm and an annual average of 0.1 ppm, which was 10 times higher than the current level (0.008 ppm). On the other hand, during the summer, sulfurous acid gas concentrations in the city center rose to extremely high levels due to the southeast winds from the direction of the industrial complex.
In parallel with the measurement of these contaminants, a health survey of the residents was conducted, which revealed that the residents suffering from respiratory diseases were mainly concentrated in the vicinity of the industrial complex. Based on the assumption that sulfurous acid gas was one of the main causes of this disease, the investigation continued. Around 1963, when the second industrial complex began full-scale operations, complaints from residents related to pollution increased dramatically, and the initial complaints were mainly about foul odors.
Malodorous substances such as sulfurous acid gas, which stays at the entrance of the human sense of smell when its concentration is low, hydrogen sulfide (H2S) from crude oil, methyl mercaptan, and aldehydes from petrochemical manufacturing processes were the immediate targets of the attack. To make matters worse, the No. 2 industrial complex was shut down during a test run, releasing a large amount of foul-smelling wastewater. This triggered the residents to take a stronger stance than before in terms of complaints and lawsuits.
(4) Survey of local administration
Mie Prefecture and Yokkaichi City faced serious pollution problems, but they dealt with them promptly, so that later, in the countermeasures phase, they were able to achieve satisfactory pollution control results.
As part of its response, the city established the "Yokkaichi City Pollution Prevention Committee" in August 1960, and set out to investigate the pollution situation in the city. According to an interim report compiled by the committee that same year, "the concentration of sulfurous acid gas in the Isotsu area was nearly six times higher than in other areas of the city. This was the first time that the committee had ever heard of sulfurous acid gas concentrations in the Isotsu area. The final report in 1961 pointed out that "the number of deaths from respiratory and circulatory diseases in Yokkaichi is on a markedly increasing trend. The report pointed out that "the number of deaths from respiratory and circulatory diseases in Yokkaichi has been increasing markedly. Based on this report, Mie Prefecture and Yokkaichi City appealed to the central government to designate Yokkaichi City as a designated area under the "Soot and Smoke Control Law.
In the absence of any regulatory system for soot and smoke emissions from factories, the pollution situation worsened day by day. In response to complaints from Mie Prefecture and Yokkaichi City, the government took air pollution in Yokkaichi very seriously and established the Yokkaichi Area Air Pollution Special Investigation Committee, which sent a survey team to the polluted area. The report included a list of basic obligations of industry and government in pollution control.
The report not only made 10 recommendations, including the designation of areas under the "Soot and Smoke Control Law," the construction of higher stacks to diffuse and dilute exhaust smoke, and the development and improvement of air pollution monitoring networks, but also urged the government to "take the direction of future pollution control measures in Japan" based on Yokkaichi's past experience of suffering serious air pollution, The purpose was to review the country's industrial policy.
In Yokkaichi, the air and water environment was severely polluted by oily wastewater, soot, dust, and sulfurous acid gas emitted from factories. This was caused by the rapid industrialization and construction of large-scale industrial complexes during the period of high economic growth after World War II, without considering the impact on the surrounding environment and without taking appropriate preventive measures.
(5) Yokkaichi Pollution Litigation
In 1967, patients in the Isotsu area filed a civil lawsuit against six companies of the No. 1 industrial complex, which developed into the Yokkaichi Pollution Lawsuit, the first pollution-related lawsuit in Japan.
Five years later, in 1972, the plaintiff patients won the lawsuit, pointing out the illegal activities of the defendant companies and the inadequacy of pollution control measures taken by the government. Local governments and private companies, sensing a sense of crisis from this lawsuit, recognized that each had a responsibility to take measures to prevent air pollution, and began to develop a variety of measures to overcome the pollution problem. These measures later became the standards and guidelines for the national government and other local governments to promote environmental protection measures, and had a major impact.
2, Progress in Pollution Prevention Measures
(1) Soot and Smoke Control Act (1966)
The Soot and Smoke Control Law was enacted in 1962 and was the first law on pollution control in Japan. It regulates the emission of sulfurous acid gas and soot. When an area was designated as a regulated area under this law, certain emission standards were established for smoke and soot generating facilities located in the designated area.
In 1964, the government, prompted by the report submitted by the Yokkaichi Area Air Pollution Special Investigation Committee mentioned earlier, designated Yokkaichi City as a regulated area under the "Soot and Smoke Control Law. Although the law went into effect two years later in 1966, it cannot be said that this control law had any substantial effect on reducing air pollution in Yokkaichi.
(2) Basic Law on Pollution Control (1967)
In 1967, the government enacted the Basic Law on Pollution Control in response to the need for drastic measures to improve problems related to sulfurous acid gas and other air pollutants. It was a unique law in the world that stipulated the basic principles of pollution control. Rather than directly stipulating requirements for regulations or administrative measures, it promoted stricter pollution control measures and encouraged local communities to take a variety of pollution control measures.
In the same year, Mie Prefecture promulgated the Mie Prefecture Pollution Prevention Ordinance, which imposed stricter pollutant emission standards than the national government.
(3) Air Pollution Control Act (1968)
Despite the application of the "soot and smoke control law," air pollution caused by harmful pollutants such as sulfurous acid gas did not improve to the desired level. Therefore, a more advanced system, the "Air Pollution Control Law," was established to break the deadlock of such pollution control measures at that time. This law was very different from the "soot and smoke control law," which had only regulated pollutant emissions, and used a K-value system to regulate the concentration of pollutants above the ground.
It also encouraged private companies to build taller smokestacks around industrial complexes to reduce sulfurous acid gas pollution. The result was a rapid decline in respiratory disease rates, but ironically, it also led to the spread of toxic pollutants over a wider area.
(4) Total Air Pollution Control (1972)
Around 1968, when the "Air Pollution Control Law" was enacted, factories were encouraged to build taller smokestacks, and regulations on above-ground concentrations of pollutants were gradually tightened. However, Yokkaichi has a high concentration of chimneys that emit large amounts of exhaust smoke, and the interaction of each chimney did not reduce sulfurous acid gas concentrations in any particular area. In order to overcome this situation, Mie Prefecture introduced the "Total Air Pollution Control" method, which was an improvement over the previous method, in an attempt to reduce the total amount of sulfurous acid gas emissions within an acceptable range in specific areas. At the time of introduction, a maximum allowable level of sulfurous acid gas concentration (0.017 ppm) was set to maintain human health, and later the amount of sulfurous acid gas emissions from individual designated stacks was predicted and calculated by computer simulation. Based on this, an allowable range of total emissions was determined for each individual stationary source. Mie Prefecture was the first prefecture in Japan to introduce this system in 1972, when it revised its "Mie Prefecture Pollution Prevention Ordinance.
Prior to that, conventional sulfurous acid gas emission controls had been in place under national law, but they applied the same standards to all areas, regardless of regional characteristics, and were not as effective as they should have been in areas facing extremely serious pollution, such as not only Yokkaichi but also Kurashiki City and Kawasaki City. The reality was that it was not as effective as it should have been.
The "Total Air Pollution Control" had two novel features that had never been seen before, allowing local governments to directly enforce regulations and having a strong and significant effect in solving pollution problems, making it very attractive to regions that had been suffering from air pollution for a long time.
Later, this approach was incorporated into national regulations, such as the Air Pollution Control Law, which regulates sulfur oxide (SOx) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions. The law also encouraged private companies to take various regulatory measures, such as the use of higher quality fuels containing less sulfur and the introduction of flue gas desulfurization processes, which led to a gradual improvement in air pollution.
(5) Yokkaichi City's system for covering treatment costs for pollution patients (1964)
In Yokkaichi, the health hazard problem became more serious around 1960 as the number of pollution patients suffering from respiratory diseases increased significantly.
Eventually, the medical costs borne by the patients ballooned, prompting several residents' groups and medical associations in the city to take action, claiming that the government had a responsibility to pay for the treatment of these pollution patients. In response, in 1964, Yokkaichi City introduced a pilot program to reduce the burden on hospitalized patients with progressive pollution-related diseases by covering their treatment costs at public expense. This system was not fully implemented until May 1965, and public funds covered not only patients with serious illnesses but also those with relatively mild symptoms, as long as the illness was caused by air pollution. In this respect, it was the first of its kind in Japan.
Also eligible for this program were pollution patients who were certified by the Yokkaichi City Pollution-Related Medical Review Board. The city covered the medical expenses not covered by health insurance in order to reduce the financial burden of treatment. Patients were recognized as certified pollution patients if they met the following two conditions: 1. had lived in the designated area for at least three years; 2. suffered from one of the three designated diseases (emphysema, bronchial asthma, or chronic bronchitis); or 3. had a history of at least one year of treatment in the designated area.
Such a measure at a stage when the causal relationship to air pollution was not yet clear was historically extremely rare, and was an adventurous endeavor. In addition, the legal background to support such measures at the national level had not yet been established, so the city had to bear the full cost of the publicly funded measures.
Around 1965, all kinds of systems were groping for pollution control measures without appropriate guidelines. Therefore, this treatment cost-sharing system in Yokkaichi may not have been as effective as the national or prefectural level, but it was immediately publicized because it was a measure to help pollution patients directly implemented by the local government. This later influenced national measures, leading to the enactment of the Law on Special Measures for Relief of Pollution-Related Health Damage. This led to the enactment of the Law on Special Measures for Relief of Pollution-related Health Damage, which provided relief to pollution patients nationwide.
3, Advancement of technology-based pollution prevention measures
(1) Initial corporate initiatives
Around 1965, the technology to reduce sulfur content in fuel had not yet been established, but at that time, the only way to improve air pollution was to promote the use of high stacks to dilute the flue gas. Since then, serious efforts on the part of companies have led to the development of numerous pollution-preventing technologies, such as dust removal, desulfurization, and denitrification. Among them, treatment technologies such as desulfurization and denitrification have improved rapidly and significantly.
The company's initial approach was to build taller chimneys for its plants. After repeated wind tunnel tests and computer simulations were conducted to design chimneys that would more effectively diffuse and dilute sulfurous acid gas emissions, a series of high-rise chimneys, some 150 meters high, were installed in the petrochemical complex. As a result, Yokkaichi entered the so-called "era of tall chimneys.
By 1967, a test apparatus for flue gas desulfurization began operating at a thermal power plant in the No. 2 Industrial Complex. The equipment, for which the activated manganese oxide method is used in the desulfurization process, was developed under a project of the Industrial Technology Agency of the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (now the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry).
In parallel with flue gas treatment, flue gas desulfurization technology was also developed and introduced at the private level: in 1968, the sulfur content in fuel, which initially averaged around 3%, was successfully reduced to 1.7% using heavy oil indirect desulfurization equipment installed in the oil refinery at Complex 2. In recent decades, the sulfur content in fuels has been greatly reduced thanks to the diligent pollution control efforts of petroleum-related companies. Yokkaichi's air pollution has improved dramatically as a result of numerous pollution prevention efforts, including the installation of desulfurization equipment and switching to high quality fuels with lower sulfur content.
(2) Installation of desulfurization equipment
In the 1970s, efforts to improve pollution control technology resulted in a dramatic increase in the processing capacity of flue gas desulfurization units, which prompted the installation of such units at various plants related to petrochemical complexes. As evidence that Yokkaichi is one of the cities that are extremely dedicated to pollution control, more large FGD units were installed in the city than anywhere else in Japan. Among them was a dust collector, which removed sulfurous acid gas and soot from flue gas, and which was installed in 1974 and was one of the largest in Japan at the time.
In Yokkaichi, there are 16 flue gas desulfurization units, of which 10 units use the magnesium hydroxide method, 3 units use the limestone-gypsum method, 1 unit uses the rare sulfuric acid-gypsum method, 1 unit uses the sodium sulfite method, and 1 unit uses the catalytic contact reduction method. Meanwhile, the establishment of desulfurization, denitrification, and dust removal technologies has made it possible to use coal as fuel, which had previously been discouraged because of its environmental impact. As a result, three coal-fueled boilers have been installed in the city since 1990.
(3) Installation of denitrification equipment
The environmental standard for nitrogen oxides (NOx) is "The average daily hourly value shall not exceed 0.02 ppm (or 0.04 ppm to 0.06 ppm or less after the 1978 revision). This was stipulated in 1973 in a public notice by the Environment Agency (now the Ministry of the Environment). This was the most stringent standard, and companies were faced with the extremely difficult task of developing denitrification equipment.
Around 1975, the views of the government and the corporate side were at odds over the evaluation of the stages in the development of denitrification technology. The national government believed that the development of denitrification technology was technically feasible, while the corporate side argued that there were still some difficulties to be overcome in its realization. However, denitrification equipment such as the dry ammonia catalytic reduction system was put to practical use after 1978, and since 1990, it has been installed in seven plants in Yokkaichi City.
(4) Development of pollution monitoring network
In order to prevent air pollution, it is essential to accurately determine the state of pollution. To this end, Mie Prefecture became the first prefecture in Japan to begin continuous measurement of sulfurous acid gases using automatic measuring machines in 1962. Later, in 1966, Mie began continuous monitoring of air pollution using analog telemetry at four locations in Yokkaichi City.
In 1973, a prefectural ordinance required 16 major plants in the Yokkaichi area to install digital telemeters (smoke source telemetering system) and to transmit data on emissions of hazardous substances that lead to air pollution to the Mie Prefectural Environmental Science Center. Under this system, each plant was required to submit detailed data on the type of fuel used, fuel consumption, amount of flue gas emissions, sulfurous acid gas concentrations, and so on. In this way, the amount of emissions from each plant could be ascertained for effective implementation of "total air pollution control.
Also in 1991, an air pollution forecasting system was introduced, which sends forecast information on pollution to each plant, thereby enabling effective preventive measures to be taken to reduce emissions of harmful pollutants.
4. Pollution control measures in Yokkaichi
(1) Yokkaichi Area Pollution Prevention Plan
In December 1970, Yokkaichi City was designated by the government as a major target area under the Basic Law on Pollution Control, and the "Yokkaichi Area Pollution Prevention Plan" was formulated accordingly. Under this plan, various pollution control projects were implemented from 1971 to 1977 at a total cost of over 150 billion yen.
For air pollution control, the use of low-sulfur fuels, installation of high-rise chimneys and flue gas treatment equipment, and maintenance of high-performance dust collectors, etc.; for water pollution, wastewater treatment facilities; and for noise pollution, noise interception facilities, etc., were determined according to the type of pollution. This has increased the awareness of companies to initiate pollution reduction measures.
These efforts were more successful in preventative measures than initially anticipated. That is, although there were 11 other cities designated as areas subject to total emission control, Yokkaichi achieved the long-term environmental standard for sulfurous acid gas in 1976, ahead of them. Since then, sulfurous acid gas concentrations have remained lower than the targets originally set by Mie Prefecture.
(2) Pollution Patient Relief System
Medical benefits were originally provided to pollution patients by Yokkaichi City at public expense, but with the promulgation of the "Law on Special Measures for Health Damage Relief Related to Pollution (Health Damage Relief Law)" in February 1970, it was decided that the government was responsible for bearing this burden. In addition, the Yokkaichi Pollution Control Cooperation Foundation was established with contributions from companies affiliated with petrochemical complexes to support patients who were unable to work because of pollution-related diseases. From this foundation, living allowances, death benefits, settlements, and temporary allowances were provided to the patients.
In September 1974, with the enactment of the "Pollution Health Damage Compensation Law," the government took over the medical expense support that Yokkaichi had previously provided on its own for pollution patients. Based on this law, allowances such as medical benefits, injury compensation, and survivor benefits were provided. Later, the name of the law was changed to the "Law Concerning Compensation for Health Damage Caused by Pollution," partly because the number of pollution cases caused by air pollution had decreased.
Two groundbreaking programs in Yokkaichi, the "Total Air Pollution Control" for sulfurous acid gas emission control enacted in 1972 and the above-mentioned support program for pollution patients by the "Yokkaichi Pollution Control Cooperation Foundation," had a major impact on national legislation. The former contributed greatly to the development of pollution control measures, and the latter to the relief of pollution patients.
Mie Prefecture has surveyed the number of recent cases of obstructive respiratory disease in the coastal area near the petrochemical complex and in the western suburbs of the city, and has found no significant difference in the number of cases in these two areas since 1971.
(3) Pollution prevention agreements
Companies related to petrochemical complexes have been concluding agreements on pollution prevention since 1968 in order to protect the living environment of residents and promote solid pollution prevention measures. In addition, more and more companies in Yokkaichi tried to conclude agreements on pollution prevention when the "Petroleum Complex Disaster Prevention Law" was enacted in 1975.
For example, a meeting is held several times a year to discuss the pollution prevention agreement, consisting of the community association chairperson and executives from the factories related to the industrial complex. At these meetings, company executives report on the operation plan of the industrial complex, including periodic shutdown schedules and facility expansions, and the community chairperson exchanges opinions with the local residents.
(4) Environmental Impact Assessment (Preliminary Pollution Review Board)
It is very important in pollution control administration to prevent pollution as well as to address existing problems.
In 1972, Mie Prefecture was one of the first prefectures to take the initiative in pollution prevention administration by enacting the "Mie Prefecture Preliminary Pollution Examination Board Ordinance". The Preliminary Pollution Examination Board examined the applicability of the ordinance from a technical standpoint before constructing or expanding a new factory or business site in the region.
This system was established in 1979 as the "Environmental Impact Assessment System" to predict and assess the impact of development projects such as the construction of factory facilities on the natural and living environment.
Under this system, local communities can predict and evaluate the environmental impact of development projects or facility construction in their area.
(5) Establishment of International Center for Environmental Technology Transfer (ICETT)
The process of environmental issues in Yokkaichi can be divided into three stages as follows.
- Phase 1 (1958-1967) Industrial zones (petrochemical complexes) were built along the coast to rebuild the postwar economy and industry.
- Phase 2 (1968-1977) Pollution caused by pollutants generated by active commercial activities amid industrialization, and the government and businesses working together to overcome pollution problems and improve the environment.
- Phase 3 (1978-1987) Preparation of international contributions aimed at environmental protection in developing countries, and desirable urban planning based on advanced anti-pollution technology and bitter experiences in combating pollution over the past 20 years or so.
The main thing implemented as a result of the third phase was the establishment of the International Center for Environmental Technology Transfer and Research (ICETT) in 1990 with the support and cooperation of Mie Prefecture, Yokkaichi City, the national government, and private companies.
Today, numerous developing countries are plagued by pollution from fixed and mobile sources. When Japan was first confronted with environmental problems, it had insufficient knowledge and technology to deal with them. Based on Japan's past experience, it is extremely important to take environmental protection measures as soon as possible, because the cost of improving the environment or helping pollution victims is much more enormous than the cost of preventing pollution.
Through its history and experience of improving pollution, Yokkaichi has accumulated technologies and knowledge that are useful for pollution control. It is very important to provide such technology and knowledge to developing countries in the midst of industrialization through technical assistance. In November 1993, the Basic Environment Law was enacted to replace the Basic Law on Pollution Control, the main feature of which is to emphasize the importance of international cooperation in environmental protection. ICETT plays an important role in the field of international cooperation by providing technical assistance to developing countries.
